Ito ang ugát ng napakaraming pagtatalo may kinalaman sa paksaing ito.
Dahil bihira ang gumugugol ng mahabang panahon para
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Log in or register now. kung paano nabuô ang kalipunan ng mga aklat na nasa Bibliya, at kung paano nangyari na ang mga aklat na nasa Bibliya ang siyang nailakip sa Bibliya na alam natin sa kasalukuyan.
Mangyari pa, ang maalwang sagot na madaling panigan ng marami ay kung ano mismo ang inaangkin ng Bibliya tungkol sa kung saan galing ang Bibliya. (2 Timothy 3:16)
History of the Big Bang theory
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According to the Big Bang model, the universe expanded from an extremely dense and hot state and continues to expand today. A common analogy explains that space itself is expanding, carrying galaxies with it, like spots on an inflating balloon. The graphic scheme above is an artist's concept illustrating the expansion of a portion of chips on a flat universe.
The history of the Big Bang theory began with the Big Bang's development from observations and theoretical considerations. Much of the theoretical work in cosmology now involves extensions and refinements to the basic Big Bang model.
Ancient philosophy and medieval temporal finitism Edit
In medieval philosophy, there was much debate over whether the universe had a finite or infinite past (see Temporal finitism). The philosophy of Aristotle held that the universe had an infinite past, which caused problems for medieval Jewish and Islamic philosophers who were unable to reconcile the Aristotelian conception of the eternal with the Abrahamic view of creation.[1] As a result, a variety of logical arguments for the universe having a finite past were developed by John Philoponus, Al-Kindi, Saadia Gaon, Al-Ghazali and Immanuel Kant, among others.[2]
In his 1225 treatise De Luce (On Light), English theologian Robert Grosseteste explored the nature of matter and the cosmos. He described the birth of the universe in an explosion and the crystallization of matter to form stars and planets in a set of nested spheres around Earth. De Luce is the first attempt to describe the heavens and Earth using a single set of physical laws.[3]
In 1610, Johannes Kepler used the dark night sky to argue for a finite universe. Seventy-seven years later, Isaac Newton described large-scale motion throughout the universe.
The description of a universe that expanded and contracted in a cyclic manner was first put forward in a poem published in 1791 by Erasmus Darwin. Edgar Allan Poe presented a similar cyclic system in his 1848 essay titled Eureka: A Prose Poem; it is obviously not a scientific work, but Poe, while starting from metaphysical principles, tried to explain the universe using contemporary physical and mental knowledge. Ignored by the scientific community and often misunderstood by literary critics, its scientific implications have been reevaluated in recent times.
According to Poe, the initial state of matter was a single "Primordial Particle". "Divine Volition", manifesting itself as a repulsive force, fragmented the Primordial Particle into atoms. Atoms spread evenly throughout space, until the repulsive force stops, and attraction appears as a reaction: then matter begins to clump together forming stars and star systems, while the material universe is drawn back together by gravity, finally collapsing and ending eventually returning to the Primordial Particle stage in order to begin the process of repulsion and attraction once again. This part of Eureka describes a Newtonian evolving universe which shares a number of properties with relativistic models, and for this reason Poe anticipates some themes of modern cosmology.[
Few biblical books are regarded by scholars as the product of a single individual, and all have been edited to produce the works known today.[1] The following article outlines the conclusions of the majority of contemporary scholars, along with the traditional views, both Jewish and Christian.
Divine authorship Edit
See also: Biblical inspiration and Prophet
Jews, Samaritans, and Christians have, in different ways, regarded the Bible as being the "Word of God", or as having been authored by the Jewish/Christian God. In many Christian liturgies, the words "This is the word of the Lord" will follow a Scripture reading. As Saint Thomas Aquinas stated, "The author of Holy Scripture is God".[2] Westminster Confession of Faith (1646) asserts that the Bible's authority depends "wholly upon God (who is truth itself), the Author thereof; and therefore it is to be received, because it is the Word of God".[3]
A few of the books of the Minor Prophets claim divine origin, as well as the book's transmission through a human prophet. Hosea 1:1 has (possibly as a heading), "The word of the Lord that came to Hosea son of Beeri...", while Joel, Micah and Zephaniah all commence in a similar fashion. James L. Mays suggests that it was the theological understanding of the final redactor that the book as a whole is the "word of Yahweh".[4]
There is some debate as to how the word of God may have been transmitted to the authors. The usual position held in modern Christian theology is that the word was inspired by God, while there are some[who?] who believe that God verbally dictated the word to those who recorded it (this being the position held by Orthodox Jews regarding the Torah, the holiest part of the Jewish Bible).
Many evangelicals in particular appeal to 2 Timothy 3:16 as indicating the Bible's divine authorship. In the ESV translation, this reads "All Scripture is breathed out by God...", while the NIV renders it "All Scripture is God-breathed..." Robert L. Reymond argues that Paul was "asserting the divine origin of the entirety of Scripture",[5] although Paul was specifically referring to the Old Testament.
Hebrew Bible Edit
The Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, is the collection of scriptures making up the Bible used by Judaism. The order used here follows the divisions used in Jewish Bibles.
Torah Edit
Main articles: Torah § Composition, and Documentary hypothesis
A Sefer Torah
The first division of the Jewish Bible is the Torah, meaning "Instruction" or "Law"; in scholarly literature it is frequently called by its Greek name, the Pentateuch ("five scrolls"). It is the group of five books made up of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy and stands first in all versions of the Christian Old Testament.
According to Rabbinic tradition the five books of the Torah were written by Moses, with the exception of the last eight verses of Deuteronomy which describe his death.[6] Today, the majority of scholars agree that the Pentateuch does not have a single author, and that its composition took place over centuries.[7]
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers Edit
From the late 19th century there was a consensus among scholars around the documentary hypothesis, which suggests that the first four books (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers) were created by combining four originally independent documents, known as the Jahwist, the Elohist, the Deuteronomist, and the Priestly sources.[8] This approach has since seen various revisions,[9] yet while the identification of distinctive Deuteronomistic and Priestly theologies and vocabularies remains widespread, they are used to form new approaches suggesting that the books were combined gradually over time by the slow accumulation of "fragments" of text, or that a basic text was "supplemented" by later authors/editors.[10] At the same time there has been a tendency to bring the origins of the Pentateuch further forward in time, and the most recent proposals place it in 5th century Judah undender the Persian empire.[11]
Deuteronomy Edit
See also: Deuteronomist § Deuteronomistic history
Deuteronomy is treated separately from Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers. Its place in the documentary hypothesis is anomalous, as it, unlike the other four, consists of a single "source". The process of its formation probably took several hundred years, from the 8th century to the 6th,[12] and its authors have been variously identified as prophetic circles (because the concerns of Deuteronomy mirror those of the prophets, especially Hosea), Levitical priestly circles (because it stresses the role of the Levites), and wisdom and scribal circles (because it esteems wisdom, and because the treaty-form in which it is written would be best known to scribes).[13] Deuteronomy was later used as the introduction to the comprehensive history of Israel written in the early part of the 6th century, and later still it was detached from the history and used to round off the Pentateuch.[14]
Prophets Edit
Main article: Nevi'im
Former prophets Edit
See also: Book of Joshua § Composition, Book of Judges § Composition, Books of Samuel § Composition, and Books of Kings § Composition
The Former Prophets (Nevi'im Rishonim [נביאים ראשונים]), make up the first part of the second division of the Hebrew Bible, the Nevi'im, which translates as "Prophets". In Christian Bibles the Book of Ruth, which belongs in the final section of the Hebrew Bible, is inserted between Judges and Samuel.
According to Jewish tradition dating from at least the 2nd century CE, the Book of Joshua was by Joshua, the Book of Judges and the Books of Samuel were by the prophet Samuel (with some passages by the prophets Gad and Nathan), while the two Books of Kings were by Jeremiah.[15] Since 1943 most scholars have accepted Martin Noth's argument that Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings make up a single work, the so-called "Deuteronomistic history."[16] Noth believed that the history was the work of a single author writing in the time of the Babylonian exile (586–539 BCE). This author/editor took as his starting point an early version of the book of Deuteronomy, which had already been composed during the reign of Josiah (last quarter of the 7th century), selecting, editing and composing it to produce a coherent work.[17] Frank Moore Cross later proposed that an earlier version of the history was composed in Jerusalem in Josiah's time; this first version, Dtr1, was then revised and expanded to create Noth's second edition, or Dtr2. Still later scholars have discovered further layers and further author-editors.[18] In the 1990s some scholars began to question the existence of a Deuteronomistic history[19] and the question of the origin of these books continues to be debated.[20]
Latter prophets Edit
A fragment of the Book of Isaiah found among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
Isaiah Edit
Main article: Book of Isaiah § Composition
Modern scholars divide the Book of Isaiah into three parts, each with a different origin:[21] "First Isaiah", chapters 1–39, containing the words of the historical 8th century BCE prophet Isaiah and later expansions by his disciples;[22] "Deutero-Isaiah" (chapters 40–55), by an anonymous Jewish author in Babylon near the end of the Babylonian captivity;[21]:418 and "Trito-Isaiah" (chapters 56–66), by anonymous disciples of Deutero-Isaiah in Jerusalem immediately after the return from Babylon[21]:444 (although some scholars suggest that chapters 55–66 were written by Deutero-Isaiah after the fall of Babylon.)[23] This orderly sequence of pre-exilic, exilic and post-exilic material is somewhat misleading, as significant editing has clearly taken place in all three parts.[24]
Jeremiah Edit
Main article: Book of Jeremiah § Composition
Jeremiah lived in the late 7th and early 6th centuries BCE. The Book of Jeremiah presents Baruch ben Neriah as the prophet's companion who writes his words on several occasions, and there has accordingly been much speculatio
